Therefore, interrupting the bacterial surface sensing mechanism and their initial binding process to surfaces is essential to effectively prevent biofilm-related problems. As such, once biofilms are established, it becomes extremely difficult to kill embedded bacteria or mechanically remove biofilms from surfaces. During the biofilm maturation, the EPS matrix enhances cell adhesion and cohesion that promote both microbial accumulation onto a surface and the development of densely packed cell aggregates, resulting in a highly structured and adherent biofilm. Biofilm formation is essential for microorganisms’ survival since it benefits bacteria it stimulates bacterial growth and acts as a barrier that protects the embedded microorganisms from environmental challenges and administered antimicrobials ( Lebeaux et al., 2014). Particularly, 60–70% of all healthcare-associated infections are attributed to biofilm infections in implantable medical devices ( Bryers, 2008), thereby it is imperative to develop novel anti-infectious biomaterials. Thus, it is deeply associated with a diverse spectrum of industrial biofouling as well as human health problems, such as dental caries, infective endocarditis, cystic fibrosis pneumonia, and peritoneal dialysis catheters infection ( Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004). After biofilm maturation, the microorganisms shed and move from the matured biofilm to join another biofilm community or to become a pioneer of a new one ( Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004).Ī significant feature of the biofilm is that it can form either on a biotic or abiotic surface. The structured channels within the biofilm facilitate the exchanges of nutrients and byproducts between the embedded microorganisms and the external environment, which attributes to the microorganisms’ colonization growth and maturation ( Flemming et al., 2016). Once the microorganisms adhere to a surface, they often aggregate and form microcolonies that maturate over time ( An and Friedman, 1998). This enables bacteria to interact with surfaces using their bacterial surface molecules in the form of Lifshitz-van der Waals attractive forces ( Carniello et al., 2018). At the final stage of adhesion, the bacterial cell wall is deformed, which reinforces the bacteria’s adhesion toward the surface by positioning the cytoplasmic bacterial molecules closer to the surface. The development of the biofilm is a sequential process that starts with a loose association of the microorganisms to a surface then converted to strong adhesion. Lastly, the present review features recent innovations in nanotechnology-based antifouling systems to engineer new concepts of antibiofilm surfaces.īiofilm is a three-dimensional structure formed as a result of microorganism’s surface sensing, initial adhesion to surfaces, followed by subsequent colonization and production of an extracellular polysaccharides matrix (EPS) ( Flemming et al., 2016). This review also highlights other factors that are often neglected in bacterial adhesion studies such as bacterial motility and the effect of hydrodynamic flow. Noting that the process of bacterial adhesion is influenced by many factors, including material surface properties, this review summarizes recent works dedicated to understanding the influences of surface charge, surface wettability, roughness, topography, stiffness, and combination of properties on bacterial adhesion. Therefore, interrupting the bacterial surface sensing mechanism and subsequent initial binding process of bacteria to surfaces is essential to effectively prevent biofilm-associated problems. Once the biofilm is matured, it becomes extremely difficult to kill bacteria or mechanically remove biofilms from solid surfaces. Bacteria in biofilms are mostly embedded in a complex matrix comprised of extracellular polymeric substances that provide mechanical stability and protection against environmental adversities. 2Center for Innovation & Precision Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United Statesīiofilms are structured microbial communities attached to surfaces, which play a significant role in the persistence of biofoulings in both medical and industrial settings.1Department of Preventive & Restorative Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States.Sherry Zheng 1†, Marwa Bawazir 1†, Atul Dhall 1, Hye-Eun Kim 1, Le He 1, Joseph Heo 1 and Geelsu Hwang 1,2*
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